Emoji use in social media posts: relationships with personality traits and word usage.

Prior research has demonstrated relationships between personality traits of social media users and the language used in their posts. Few studies have examined whether there are relationships between personality traits of users and how they use emojis in their social media posts. Emojis are digital pictographs used to express ideas and emotions. There are thousands of emojis, which depict faces with expressions, objects, animals, and activities. We conducted a study with two samples (n = 76 and n = 245) in which we examined how emoji use on X (formerly Twitter) related to users' personality traits and language use in posts. Personality traits were assessed from participants in an online survey. With participants' consent, we analyzed word usage in posts. Word frequencies were calculated using the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count (LIWC). In both samples, the results showed that those who used the most emojis had the lowest levels of openness to experience. Emoji use was unrelated to the other personality traits. In sample 1, emoji use was also related to use of words related to family, positive emotion, and sadness and less frequent use of articles and words related to insight. In sample 2, more frequent use of emojis in posts was related to more frequent use of you pronouns, I pronouns, and more frequent use of negative function words and words related to time. The results support the view that social media users' characteristics may be gleaned from the content of their social media posts.

Echolalia from a transdiagnostic perspective.

Background & aims: Echolalia, the repetition of one's or others' utterances, is a behavior present in typical development, autism spectrum disorder, aphasias, Tourette's, and other clinical groups. Despite the broad range of conditions in which echolalia can occur, it is considered primarily through a disorder-specific lens, which limits a full understanding of the behavior. Method: Empirical and review papers on echolalia across disciplines and etiologies were considered for this narrative review. Literatures were condensed into three primary sections, including echolalia presentations, neural mechanisms, and treatment approaches. Main contribution: Echolalia, commonly observed in autism and other developmental conditions, is assessed, observed, and treated in a siloed fashion, which reduces our collective knowledge of this communication difference. Echolalia should be considered as a developmental, transdiagnostic, and communicative phenomenon. Echolalia is commonly considered as a communicative behavior, but little is known about its neural etiologies or efficacious treatments. Conclusions: This review is the first to synthesize echolalia from a transdiagnostic perspective, which allows for the direct comparisons across and within clinical groups to inform assessment, treatment, conceptualization, and research recommendations. Implications: Considering echolalia transdiagnostically highlights the lack of consensus on operationalization and measurement across and within disorders. Clinical and research future directions need to prioritize consistent definitions of echolalia, which can be used to derive accurate prevalence estimates. Echolalia should be considered as a communication strategy, used similarly across developmental and clinical groups, with recommended strategies of shaping to increase its effectiveness.

Taking Risks With Cybersecurity: Using Knowledge and Personal Characteristics to Predict Self-Reported Cybersecurity Behaviors.

Individuals' use of insecure cybersecurity behaviors, including the use of weak passwords, is a leading contributor to cybersecurity breaches. While training individuals on best practices in cybersecurity continues to be implemented, prior research has found that training people in the use of secure passwords has not proven to be effective. Developing profiles of individual who are likely to become victims of password hacking, phishing scams, and other types of breaches would be useful, as they could be used to identify individuals with the highest likelihood of engaging in insecure cybersecurity behaviors. The present research tested the hypothesis that in addition to self-reported cybersecurity knowledge, personal characteristics, such as personality traits and general risk-taking behavior not related to technology use, can predict individual differences in cybersecurity behaviors, as measured by self-report. Our hypothesis was confirmed in a large study involving 325 undergraduates. Participants provided information about their self-reported risky cybersecurity behaviors (e.g., using non-secure Wi-Fi, not logging out of accounts on shared computers, etc.), self-reported knowledge about strong/weak passwords, Big Five personality traits (i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness, and mood instability), sensation-seeking personality traits, and general risk-taking unrelated to using technology. The results of a hierarchical regression indicated that 34% of risky cybersecurity behavior was significantly predicted by the combination of self-reported knowledge about strong/weak passwords, personality traits, and risk-taking in daily life. The results suggest that victim profiles should take into account individual differences in personality and general risk-taking in domains unrelated to cybersecurity in addition to cybersecurity knowledge.

Second Language Interference during First Language Processing by Arabic-English Bilinguals.

The research investigated whether a bilinguals' second language (L2) is activated during a task involving only the first language (L1). We tested the hypothesis that the amount of L2 interference can vary across settings, with less interference occurring in testing locations where L2 is rarely used. In Experiment 1, we compared language processing for 50 Arabic-English bilinguals tested in Saudi Arabia and 49 Arabic-English tested in the United States. In the task, participants viewed a picture and judged whether a phoneme presented over headphones was part of the L1 picture name. The results showed no effect of testing location on processing. For both groups of bilinguals, we observed L2 interference in mean error rates, but not in mean response times. We also found evidence for L2 interference in correlational analyses between response times and (a) participants' weekly L2 usage and (b) frequency of English picture names. A second experiment with 24 Arabic monolinguals supported the conclusion that the results with bilinguals were due to L2 interference. Implications for theories of bilingual memory are discussed.

The Development of the Scale of Protective Factors: Resilience in a Violent Trauma Sample.

This research developed the Scale of Protective Factors (SPF-24) to measure protective factors contributing to resilience. We investigated the factor structure of 35 items. After exploratory factor analysis, we subjected 25 items representing 2 social-interpersonal and 2 cognitive-individual factors to confirmatory factor analysis. The sample consisted of 942 college students from 3 studies and 2 institutions. To examine the diagnostic function of the SPF, we used clinical criteria to identify a subsample of participants who had experienced violent trauma and scored low, moderate, or high on an established resilience scale. Results showed that the low-resilient group scored significantly lower on all subscales of the SPF with marked differences in prioritizing/planning behavior. Implications for the research and clinical settings are discussed.

The roles of semantic and phonological information in word production: evidence from Spanish-English bilinguals.

The research investigated the roles of semantic and phonological processing in word production. Spanish-English bilingual individuals produced English target words when cued with definitions that were also written in English. When the correct word was not produced, a secondary task was performed in which participants rated the ease of pronunciation of a Spanish prime word. We varied the relatedness between target and prime words. In related conditions, the target and prime words were cognates (i.e., similar in meaning and sound), false cognates (i.e., similar in sound, but different in meaning), or noncognates (i.e., similar in meaning, but different in sound). In unrelated conditions, target and primes were dissimilar in sound and meaning. The results showed that participants' performance was influenced by semantic as well as phonological information. These results provided evidence that semantic as well as phonological information can influence word production, as is predicted by memory models in which representations for semantic and phonological levels of representation are interconnected.

Hemispheric differences in the processing of words learned early versus later in childhood.

The research investigated whether there are hemispheric differences in processing for words acquired early in childhood (early AoA) and words acquired later in childhood (late AoA). We hypothesized that because of recent evidence suggesting that there is a right hemisphere dominance in early childhood, early AoA words would be represented in the right hemisphere, and late AoA words would be represented in the left hemisphere. This hypothesis differs from an early view that late AoA words would be represented in the left hemisphere, and early AoA words would be represented in both hemispheres (Gazzaniga, 1974). We report two experiments using the divided visual field (DVF) technique. The results showed that there was a right visual field (RVF)/left hemisphere (LH) advantage only for late AoA words. For early AoA words, there was a left visual field (LVF)/right hemisphere advantage (RH). Implications for theories of hemispheric differences in word processing are discussed.

The effect of mortality salience on implicit bias.

Previous research in terror management theory has shown that when individuals are reminded of their mortality, negative evaluations of out-group members increase. This previous research has used a variety of methods to investigate the change in attitudes toward out-group members. These methods generally permit participants time to consciously reflect during responding In the present study, the authors hypothesized that reminding individuals of their mortality would increase implicit bias toward out-group members when measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT). In the experiment, White participants were randomly assigned to complete a written essay about imagining their own death (i.e., mortality salience condition) or an essay regarding an upcoming exam (i.e., control condition), and then participants completed an evaluative IAT. The results revealed that participants who had been reminded of their mortality took longer to associate names of Black individuals with positive words when compared to a control group. The implications of these findings are considered.

The role of age of acquisition in bilingual word translation: evidence from Spanish-English bilinguals.

The present research tested the hypothesis that the age at which one's first language (L1) words are learned influences language processing in bilinguals. Prior research on bilingual language processing by Kroll and colleagues has suggested that memory links between L1 words and conceptual representations are stronger than memory links between one's second language (L2) word and conceptual representations. We hypothesized that the strengths of memory links between L1 words and conceptual representations are stronger for words learned early in life than for words learned later in life. Support for the hypothesis was obtained in bilingual translation experiment with 36 Spanish-English bilinguals. Participants translated L1 words into L2 and L2 words into L1. Half of the L1 words were learned early in childhood (early AoA words), and half were learned later in life (late AoA words). The L2 words were translation equivalents of the L1 words tested; the average age at which L2 words were learned was age 7. Target words were presented either in random order or blocked by semantic category. Translation times were longer when trials were blocked by semantic category (i.e., categorical interference) occurred only when early AoA L1 words were translated into L2. Implications for current models of bilingual memory are discussed.

Ageism and risk-taking in young adults: evidence for a link between death anxiety and ageism.

The authors investigated the relationship between ageism and risk-taking in young adults. They hypothesized that young adults may attempt to distance themselves from their future older selves and from an awareness of their mortality by seeking out experiences that make them feel strong, energetic, and invulnerable (i.e., experiences involving risk-taking). We report a study whose results confirmed the hypothesis. Our study involved 408 undergraduates (226 women, 182 men) who completed the Centers for Disease Control's 2007 State and Local Youth Risk Behavior Survey and measures of 2 distinct aspects of ageism: (a) ageist attitudes and (b) ageist behaviors. Both ageist attitudes and behaviors correlated positively with risk-taking (i.e., sexual behavior, alcohol use, cigarette use, and drug use). The results are consistent with terror management theory's view of ageism as a buffer against death anxiety.

Processing prenominal adjectives during sentence comprehension.

The time course of semantic processing of two prenominal adjectives contained within a noun phrase was investigated. In English, the ordering of adjectives is determined by their meaning. Adjectives specifying color (e.g., red) generally follow adjectives that specify size (e.g., big) and adjectives that specify aspects of general description (e.g., young). In two experiments, reading time was measured on sentences containing a noun phrase in which the order of prenominal adjectives was varied. In Exp. 1, the adjectives specified size and color (e.g., the big red balloon vs the red big balloon). In Exp. 2, the adjectives specified general description and color (e.g., the pretty yellow dress vs the yellow pretty dress). The results of both experiments showed that the processing difficulty arising from comprehending an adjective order violation emerged before the head noun was processed, indicating that comprehenders semantically processed the meanings of prenominal adjectives prior to interpreting the meaning of the head noun.

The effect of mortality salience on women's judgments of male faces.

Previous research has shown that individuals who are reminded of their death exhibited a greater desire for offspring than those who were not reminded of their death. The present research investigated whether being reminded of mortality affects mate selection behaviors, such as facial preference judgments. Prior research has shown that women prefer more masculine faces when they are at the high versus low fertility phase of their menstrual cycles. We report an experiment in which women were tested either at their high or fertility phase. They were randomly assigned to either a mortality salience (MS) or control condition and then asked to judge faces ranging from extreme masculine to extreme feminine. The results showed that women's choice of the attractive male face was determined by an interaction between fertility phase and condition. In control conditions, high fertility phase women preferred a significantly more masculine face than women who were in a lower fertility phase of their menstrual cycles. In MS conditions, high fertility phase women preferred a significantly less masculine (i.e., more average) face than women who were in a low fertility phase. The results indicate that biological processes, such as fertility phase, involved in mate selection are sensitive to current environmental factors, such as death reminders. This sensitivity may serve as an adaptive compromise when choosing a mate in potentially adverse environmental conditions.

Corticosteroid side-effects and risk for bleeding in immune thrombocytopenic purpura: patient and hematologist perspectives.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine hematologist and patient perspectives about the side-effects of the corticosteroid treatment of immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) and their perspectives about the patient's risk for bleeding. The specific aim was to compare patient and hematologist perspectives and, if a difference was documented, the implications of that difference. We hypothesized that patients with ITP may have more concern about corticosteroid side-effects and less concern about serious bleeding than hematologists. METHODS: We surveyed 80 patients in the Oklahoma ITP Registry and all 83 hematologists in Oklahoma about the occurrence and severity of 18 corticosteroid side-effects and risks for serious bleeding. RESULTS: Response rates were 80% (patients) and 71% (hematologists). Responses of patients and hematologists were significantly different from each other regarding both the frequency of severe corticosteroid side-effects and the risk of serious bleeding. For 13 of the 18 corticosteroid side-effects, patients reported more frequent occurrence of severe symptoms than hematologists (P < 0.05); physicians reported more frequent occurrence for one side-effect (P < 0.05). Conversely, 69% and 93% of hematologists reported being very worried about serious bleeding when responding to two case scenarios describing patients with platelet counts of 10 000/microL and 5000/microL (P < 0.05), compared with only 16 (31%) of 51 patients whose lowest platelet count had been <10 000/microL. CONCLUSION: Awareness of the different opinions about corticosteroid side-effects and risk for bleeding between ITP patients and hematologists may improve management decisions.

The use of verb information in parsing: different statistical analyses lead to contradictory conclusions.

The research investigated how comprehenders use verb information during syntactic parsing. Two reading experiments investigated the relationship between verb-specific variables and reading time. These experiments were close replications of prior work; however, two statistical techniques were used, rather than one. These were item-by-item correlations and participant-by-participant regression. In Experiment 1, reading time was measured using a self-paced moving window. In Experiment 2, eye movements were recorded during reading. The results of both experiments showed that the results of two types of statistical analyses support contradictory conclusions. The analyses involving participant-by-participant regression analyses provided no evidence for the early use of verb information in parsing and support syntax-first approaches to parsing. In contrast, the results of item-by-item correlation were consistent with the prior research, supporting the view that verb information can guide initial parsing decisions. Implications for theories of parsing are discussed.

Different time courses of integrative semantic processing for plural and singular nouns: implications for theories of sentence processing.

The research investigated the time course of integrative semantic processing during sentence processing. Reading time was measured on sentences containing an NP composed of an adjective and a noun whose combined meaning was plausible or anomalous (Experiment 1) or was typical or atypical (Experiment 2). The noun in the NP was either plural or singular. Plural nouns were expected to be more rapidly integrated with a preceding adjective than singular nouns because plural nouns can be ruled out as the first noun in a noun compound more rapidly than singular nouns. The results confirmed this prediction, showing that the effects of semantic plausibility and typicality were observed immediately during the processing of plural nouns, but were observed at a delay following the processing of singular nouns. Implications for theories of sentence processing are discussed.

The effect of phonemic repetition on syntactic ambiguity resolution: implications for models of working memory.

Two reading experiments investigated the extent to which the presence of phonemic repetition in sentences influenced processing difficulty during syntactic ambiguity resolution In both experiments, participants read sentences silently as reading time was measured Reading time on sentences containing a temporary syntactic ambiguity was compared to reading time on unambiguous control sentences. Sentences either did or did not contain repeated phonemes. The results showed that reading time was longer for sentences containing a syntactic ambiguity than for unambiguous control sentences. Reading time was also longer on sentences containing repeated phonemes than on sentences that did not contain repeated phonemes. Phonemic repetition did not increase the time taken for syntactic ambiguity resolution; rather, the effects of syntactic ambiguity and phonemic repetition were temporally distinct, with the effect of phonemic repetition following the effect of syntactic ambiguity. Implications for theories of working memory are discussed.

Evidence for a late-occurring effect of phoneme repetition during silent reading.

Two reading experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of phoneme repetition during silent reading (also referred to as the visual tongue-twister effect, see McCutchen & Perfetti, 1982; Perfetti & McCutchen, 1982) in conjunction with end-of-clause and end-of-sentence wrap-up effects (Just & Carpenter, 1982; Rayner, Sereno, Morris, Schmauder, & Clifton, 1989). In both experiments, reading time was measured on sentences containing either six or zero words sharing the same initial phoneme. Sentences were presented in a phrase-by-phrase moving window, with each phrase either containing one word that involved a repeated phoneme or a matched word not involving a repeated phoneme. The sixth presentation region either contained or did not contain a comma (Experiment 1) or a period (Experiment 2). The results showed that the effect of phoneme repetition occurred relatively late during sentence processing, only after integration processing related to end-of-clause and end-of-sentence wrap-up occurred.

Comprehending pronouns: a role for word-specific gender stereotype information.

The research investigated how word-specific gender stereotype information can be used during language comprehension. In a rating study, the gender stereotypes for 405 noun and noun compounds were assessed. From these norms, 32 words strongly stereotyped to refer mostly to males and 32 words strongly stereotyped to refer mostly to females were selected and used in a reading experiment. Comprehenders read pairs of sentences. The subject of the first sentence was a gender stereotyped word (e.g., executive or secretary). The subject of the second sentence was either the pronoun he or she. Reading time was significantly longer when gender of the pronoun mismatched the gender stereotype of the antecedent than when the genders of pronoun and antecedent matched. This gender mismatch effect occurred on the two regions immediately following the region containing the pronoun. The results indicated that word-specific gender stereotypes can influence coreference resolution of pronouns.